Resource: Complications of Identity

Print Background Essay

Students who apply to qualify for the affirmative action quota in Brazil's universities are photographed, all against the same background and wearing the same blue smock. The photographs are then evaluated by a committee to judge if the applicants are "black enough" to be included in the affirmative action program. The experience of two identical twin applicants indicates that such a system may not be all that reliable. Substantial doubts about the validity and value of affirmative action quotas are also revealed by student comments at a public school meeting.

Black Brazilians and African Americans in the United States face many similar challenges. For example, Afro-Brazilians are not equally represented with other Brazilians in higher education, law, medicine, government, and business leadership. To remedy this pattern of injustice, Brazil adopted the use of affirmative action. Affirmative action is the encouragement of increased representation of women and minorities in schools and jobs.

Racial inequality in Brazil is centuries old. Between 1551 and 1830, Brazil imported more slaves than any other South American country (4.5 million) and only abolished slavery in 1888, later than any other country in the Western hemisphere. Slavery defined Brazil in many ways:

• Slaves maintained African religions, cultures, and languages, forging a unique Afro-Brazilian culture.
• Most white settlers immigrated alone, leading to substantial, generally tolerated interracial relationships and a high proportion of mixed-race children.
• After slavery was abolished, racial segregation was not legally imposed. However, emancipated slaves faced stiff competition for jobs from European and Asian immigrants.
• Brazil became a highly diverse mixture of people of various European, native, African, and Asian origins.

Until recently, Brazil prided itself on being a "racial democracy." However, advocates of affirmative action argue that this "racial democracy" is a myth. Afro-Brazilians have typically attended lower-quality public schools, where they were poorly prepared for the national university admission exam. They generally have poorer health and housing, lower wages, and fewer years of schooling, than white Brazilians.

Affirmative action in Brazil's universities began in 2003 when the prestigious Universidade do Estato do Rio de Janeiro announced it would reserve a specified number of its places for black students; other universities and national legislation soon followed suit. As of 2007, the racial quota system for Brazil's universities specified that 20% of places for incoming freshmen would be reserved for Afro-Brazilians. Overall, the beneficiaries of these policies have outperformed the low expectations of affirmative action opponents.

Since 2003, affirmative action programs have expanded to include quotas for Afro-Brazilians, indigenous people, and women in politics and economic life in Brazil. Despite these developments, affirmative action is still highly controversial.

Print Questions for Discussion

• Why is the story of the twins important in revealing the complexities of Brazil's racial heritage?
• What concerns or doubts do students express about affirmative action quotas?
• To what degree does affirmative action damage individual blacks at the same time as it improves the overall opportunities for blacks?